Pride as a Catalyst for Student Engagement and Performance: The Roles of Psychological Capital and Teacher-Student Relationships

1. INTRODUCTION

Student academic performance and engagement are central outcomes in educational research, offering critical insights into the quality of the learning experience and student success (Paloș et al., 2019). These reflect what students achieve academically and their connection and involvement in learning. Given their importance, it is essential to explore how certain psychological factors, such as emotions, influence these outcomes (Vîrgă et al., 2022). Folk wisdom often advises the incorporation of emotions in the evaluation of life circumstances. When individuals experience a sense of pride, they often engage in reflective thinking, introspection and self-assessment to understand the factors contributing to their accomplishments and personal growth (Tulis & Ainley, 2011). The effects of these emotions, defined as tendencies towards multiple-component responses that develop over relatively brief periods (Fredrickson, 2013), have been the subject of much research. Prior investigations have demonstrated that positive emotions, which arise from assigning significance to past events, are associated with increased learning and success (Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2014). Moreover, evidence suggests that experiencing pleasant emotions can enhance mental and physical resources. This research article builds upon these findings to further explore the role of positive emotions and their potential implications.

Despite their significance, researchers often overlook pride among students—which is a positive reinforcer for motivation (Li et al., 2024). However, recognizing and understanding the influence of this emotion is crucial, as it can profoundly shape students' outcomes and experiences. This is crucial to address because pride is a positive emotion, and positive emotions generate psychological resources (Saleem et al., 2022), such as PsyCap (Luthans et al., 2007). PsyCap is a personal psychological resource that enhances internal strength and performance (Avey et al., 2010), and its relevance to various domains has been demonstrated. For instance, PsyCap has been linked to positive academic performance (Carmona-Halty et al., 2021), happiness (Etikariena, 2018), and engagement (Siu et al., 2023). Moreover, positive emotions enable individuals to cope effectively with stress and navigate challenges, fostering resilience and promoting optimism, practicality and confidence in goal achievement. By exploring the relationship between pride and PsyCap, this study aims to resolve this important yet unaddressed issue in the prior literature and shed light on the vital role of pride in building students' mental capital. Understanding and harnessing pride in academic settings can enhance students' hope, efficacy and optimism (Saleem et al., 2022; Vîrgă et al., 2022), ultimately contributing to their adaptability and positive evaluation of the future (Mercadante et al., 2021).

This paper aims to investigate the impact of pride as a positive emotion on student outcomes and examine the mediating role of PsyCap. Existing research has established the influence of PsyCap on students' academic performance and engagement (Vîrgă et al., 2022). However, limited attention has been given to the potential role of the teacher-student relationship (TSR) and the degree of closeness or distance between them. TSR encompasses both structural distance (physical or organizational aspects separating teachers and students) and psychological distance (perceived differences in power, status or social standing). Balwant (2016) argues that both types of distance significantly influence student-teacher interactions. Students may exhibit compliance and respect when perceiving their teachers as superior or authoritative. If this distance between teachers and students is high, it increases feelings of alienation among students and can heighten the stress of teachers (Sankalaite et al., 2021). Furthermore, positive TSR can develop students' sense of security, well-being and motivation. These positive capabilities might protect against the negative effects of school bullying that mostly disturb student engagement (Balwant, 2018). Therefore, TSR might moderate the relation between PsyCap and student outcomes, as students may have good academic performance and higher levels of engagement. Thus, investigating these critical factors in educational settings can provide valuable insights.

In this article, the researchers develop and test a research model based on the effects of pride on students. To investigate these effects, the research is grounded on the broaden and build theory (B&B), (Fredrickson, 2001) and social learning theory (Bandura, 1977). B&B theory suggests that positive emotions such as pride can expand cognitive resources (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2018). In this context, the researchers argued that students experiencing pride go for getting higher grades as they see academic performance as the one way for recognition. Similarly, the experience of pride encourages students to set higher goals, persist longer in challenging tasks, and actively seek out learning opportunities due to the upward spiral nature of pride. When students start experiencing pride, they are likely to feel more competent, capable and confident (Tulis & Ainley, 2011). These emotional experiences can help students develop PsyCap (Martínez et al., 2019). Therefore, pride enhances PsyCap, a useful resource that may also help them perform better academically and engage in more learning activities. It was argued that pride via PsyCap boosts engagement by increasing motivation and performance, and enhancing self-confidence and perseverance. TSR's role was considered as a moderator; empathy, responsiveness, and availability of a teacher are critical components of how PsyCap as a valuable resource may translate these into positive outcomes.

Most importantly, this study specifically investigates how pride is a positive emotion that can influence students' PsyCap, academic performance and engagement. Pride is a self-conscious emotion when people attribute their accomplishments or successes to their efforts or abilities (Tracy & Robins, 2007). Pride can boost motivation, self-esteem and well-being. The broaden and build theory (Fredrickson, 2013) says that when people experience positive emotions, they can draw on a wider range of resources to solve problems. So, the study proposes pride as a positive emotion that can broaden and strengthen students' psychological capacities. PsyCap is a constructive mental state that includes self-efficacy, hope, optimism and resilience (Luthans et al., 2007). People's abilities and performance are improved in different situations by using PsyCap (Avey et al., 2010). It is hypothesized in this research that pride positively impacts students' academic performance via its effect on Psycap. Academic performance refers to the knowledge students acquire at the end of each educational program (Martínez et al., 2019). To meet today's challenges, students must find their competitive edge with PsyCap (Siu et al., 2023).

This study adds significantly to the existing literature on positive emotions, PsyCap and student outcomes. First, it looks at how pride, an apparent positive emotion that received little attention in educational settings, influences student engagement and academic performance. Second, it identifies how PsyCap, a critical psychological resource for students, can mediate the relationship between pride and student outcomes. Third, it investigates the role of TSR, a contextual factor influencing students' interactions and perceptions, in mediating the link between PsyCap and student outcomes. Finally, it provides a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the complex relations between pride, PsyCap, performance, engagement and TSR in a university setting.

So, this study answers the following questions:

• How does pride, as a positive emotion, influence student engagement and academic performance in educational settings?
• How does PsyCap mediate the relationship between pride and student outcomes, such as engagement and academic performance?
• How does TSR moderate the link between PsyCap and student outcomes?

Literature Review

Pride Impacts Students' Academic Performance and Engagement

Student academic performance and engagement have long been viewed as critical indicators of educational success, contributing to individual growth and institutional outcomes. However, their relationship is complex. While engagement typically reflects a student's involvement in learning, it does not always correlate with academic performance (Lei et al., 2018). Research shows that highly engaged students may still struggle with academic outcomes due to various factors, such as learning strategies, test anxiety, or external pressures (Fredrickson, 2013). Consequently, examining these two variables separately yet simultaneously can provide more nuanced insights into how students thrive in academic settings.

One potential pathway for enhancing engagement and performance is through the experience of positive emotions, such as pride. According to Fredrickson’s (1998) broaden-and-build (B&B) theory, positive emotions broaden individuals' cognitive processes and help them build enduring personal resources, which can ultimately improve academic and social functioning. Pride, a self-conscious emotion derived from personal achievements, offers immediate cognitive benefits—such as enhanced problem-solving and thought organization—and long-term motivational boosts (LeBlanc et al., 2015). These effects create a supportive environment for students to engage more deeply with their studies while fostering resilience in the face of academic challenges.

This study focuses on pride's influence on student engagement and academic performance, treating them as parallel dependent variables. Authentic pride, which emerges from genuine accomplishments, is linked to continued goal pursuit and prosocial behavior, which is crucial for maintaining engagement and achieving academic success (Tracy & Robins, 2007). By fostering a sense of achievement and motivating further efforts, pride can enhance immediate and sustained academic engagement, helping students remain invested in their educational pursuits over time (Banappagoudar et al., 2022). However, pride is multifaceted; while it can promote prosocial behaviors, it may also lead to a focus on status preservation, which could influence how students prioritize their efforts and resources in academic settings (Mercadante et al., 2021).

Thus, understanding pride's impact on student engagement and academic performance provides an opportunity to explore solutions to enhance educational outcomes. By broadening students' cognitive horizons and building long-term resources like self-esteem and social competence, pride may be a critical emotional driver in fostering academic and social success (Mercadante et al., 2021). Emotions influence perception, memory, attention, and reasoning (LeBlanc et al., 2015). Pride is central to human nature, with individuals often oscillating between the experience of pride or shame. Despite its importance compared to other emotions, pride has received relatively little research attention. Pride experiences can motivate prosocial behavior and enhance self-esteem (Banappagoudar et al., 2022; Tracy et al., 2023), influencing various psychological and social processes.

Tracy and Robins (2007) suggest that accomplishment pride motivates continued goal pursuit. However, pride can also drive actions to maintain or enhance status in the long run. Emotional states significantly affect the perception, analysis, judgment, and recall of experiences (LeBlanc et al., 2015). While engagement is often believed to be a sign of academic performance, high engagement does not guarantee high academic performance. In this context, the researchers believe that pride can enhance both simultaneously, but in a different style: for engagement by fostering motivation and emotional investment, and performance by boosting self-confidence, effort, and resilience.

According to the B&B theory, regular experiences of positive emotions provide a broader perspective and help to cultivate personal resources, improving psychological and physiological health. Positive emotions facilitate the "incremental broaden and build" process (Yang et al., 2022). They further found that participants experiencing pride performed better on tasks during and after the pride experience. Similarly, this study expects pride to help individuals develop their resources. Tracy and Robins (2007) state that being proud of successes increases the likelihood of continued goal pursuit. Thus, the study hypothesizes the following points:

H1: Pride is positively related to students' academic performance.

H2: Pride is positively related to student engagement.

Mediating Role of PsyCap

Emotions are "multiple component response tendencies that unfold over relatively short time spans" (Fredrickson, 2013, p. 218). When people perceive events as valuable and enjoyable, they experience positive emotions. They expand attention and thought, enabling higher-level connections and resource-building for survival and well-being. PsyCap, including hope, optimism, efficacy, and resilience, is a personal resource fostered by positive emotions. Resilience, the ability to cope and bounce back, is enhanced by positive emotions, aiding emotional recovery (Fredrickson, 2003). Positive emotions buffered and facilitated resilience, fueling emotional growth. Strong and resilient individuals experience positive emotions, suggesting their role in fostering resilience (Fredrickson, 2013). Positive emotions are crucial for coping and promoting well-being.

Psychological capital is defined as an individual's positive psychological state of development characterized by (1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering toward the goals, and when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resilience) to attain success. (Luthans et al., 2007, p. 3)

Positive emotions significantly impact students' resources, including academic self-efficacy, hope, and optimism (Vîrgă et al., 2022). This influence remains even after considering baseline personal resources and study involvement. Positive emotions have also been associated with personal resources among workers, and they can improve ego resilience and hope-related thinking (Fredrickson, 2013).

PsyCap is a multifaceted construct considered important in education (Datu et al., 2018). Studies found a significant relationship between PsyCap and learning empowerment, study engagement, academic performance, intrinsic motivation, and student well-being (Datu et al., 2018; Fredrickson & Joiner, 2018). People can effectively manage stress and obstacles with the help of this psychological resource.

Positive emotions play a critical role in different fields, including work. These positivities in emotions can serve individuals as buffers during setbacks and help build personal resources like resilience and optimism (Gloria & Steinhardt, 2016). Positive emotions are the main sources of PsyCap in the workplace, facilitating effective coping with work-related stress and challenges (Etikariena, 2018). PsyCap has the potential to foster growth and enhance performance, while positive emotions also facilitate creative thinking and positive cognition (Sen et al., 2024).

Similarly, research found a significant effect of pride on self-esteem and psychological resources (Tracy & Robins, 2007). Employees with strong psychological capital are expected to experience more happiness (Etikariena, 2018). Students use psychological resources such as self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience to effectively handle their educational challenges and uphold their well-being. Positive reframing is a cognitive process that produces positive emotions, which recuperate psychological resources and motivation. Consequently, students can persist and continue their efforts (Lei et al., 2018). PsyCap enhances students' ability to deal effectively with adversity, mitigating the negative effects of stress and improving positive outcomes.

Positive emotions enhance personal resources, while PsyCap mediates the connection between positive emotions and student outcomes. These resources are essential for students' daily tasks and academic goals, promoting their well-being and satisfaction despite challenges (Alam, 2022). The researchers believe that PsyCap could serve as the psychological mechanism that facilitates the connections between the following:

H3: PsyCap mediates the relationship between pride and students' academic performance.

H4: PsyCap mediates the relationship between pride and student engagement.

Moderating Role of Teacher-Student Relationship

In their roles as leaders, instructors have the power to direct and support their students in various endeavors and relationships (Balwant, 2016). The instructor-student relationship is often centered around the shared goal of learning and academic achievement. Good grades are significant for students regarding prestige, career prospects and personal satisfaction. At the same time, instructors value good grades as they reflect class performance and teaching quality, impacting their professional advancement.

Rasooli et al. (2018) emphasized the importance of proximity, joint activity, affinity and intersubjectivity in developing and maintaining relationships that foster learning. Proximity refers to physical closeness and shared time, while joint activity involves participating in activities with common motives and goals. Affinity, which involves the inclination to form a relationship and the autonomy to choose relational partners, is most strongly cultivated through joint activity (Rasooli et al., 2018). Students tend to view instructors, who respect their interpretations, provide opportunities for personal expression, and display enthusiasm, humor and a playful presence, as both relatable and influential.

According to research by Balwant (2018), leadership positively influences student outcomes like motivation, satisfaction, perceived instructor credibility, effect on the module, and academic performance (grades). The effectiveness of transformational leadership may vary depending on the distance between the leader and follower, as reduced distance can diminish the quality of exchange and the leader's influence (Heenan et al., 2023).

This study enhances the comprehension of teacher-student relationships by investigating the moderating effect of TSR on the relationship between PsyCap and academic performance. Considering TSR as a moderating mechanism is important because it advances our understanding of PsyCap.  Hagenauer et al. (2023) assert that teachers can boost engagement by assisting students in recognizing their capabilities and making them feel at ease. Instructors can impact student engagement by nurturing their learning and growth, boosting their sense of competence, and enhancing their chances for employment. Instructors establish student challenges to facilitate learning, encourage engagement, and evaluate performance (Balwant, 2018). Instructors' enthusiasm has the potential to foster positive emotions and increase student engagement. According to Rands and Gansemer-Topf (2017), student engagement encompasses a variety of factors, including academic challenge, peer learning, faculty experiences, campus environment, participation, motivation, grades and self-efficacy.

Close interpersonal relationships, such as the TSR, provide individuals with psychological security throughout their lives (Balwant, 2018). The perception of trust and reliability in these relationships contributes to a sense of security, while a lack of trust and reliability can trigger compensatory responses or impair normal functioning (Koenen et al., 2019). Educators are pivotal figures in their students' lives because of the solace, direction and support they give. The academic, emotional and social outcomes of students are greatly affected by positive TSR, that is marked by trust and effective communication (Sankalaite et al., 2021).

H5: The teacher-student relationship moderates the relationship between PsyCap and Student performance; the relationship is stronger for students with higher TSR than low TSR.

H6: The teacher-student relationship moderates the relationship between PsyCap and student engagement; the relationship is stronger for stronger TSR than for low TSR.

Theoretical Background

The B&B (broaden and build) theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2013) is the theoretical framework employed in this study to explain the impact of pride on students' PsyCap and outcomes. Positive emotions are linked to improved resilience, happiness, and survival (Lyubomirsky, 2008), widening attention and thought, making it easier to access higher-level connections and a wider range of ideas, and discovering and developing personal resources, enhancing survival and well-being.

Based on empirical research, emotions and cognitions share a reciprocal relationship (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2018). Emotions affect how information is processed and decisions are made, but cognition helps identify and interpret physiological sensations as particular emotions (Liu et al., 2024). Positive psychology seeks to foster greater happiness and productivity (Statharakos et al., 2022), which is necessary for effective learning and requires positive attitudes, hope, confidence, self-efficacy and grit (the capacity to persevere through failure).

This study specifically focuses on pride, a self-conscious emotion motivating individuals to pursue socially valued goals and avoid disapproval (Tracy & Robins, 2007). Pride fosters positive self-views, self-esteem, and future prosocial behaviors and investments. According to the B&B theory, positive emotions have short-term effects on physiology, attention, motivation, cognition and social skills (broaden), while generating long-term personal resources like self-esteem, social skills and creativity (build). They enhance problem-solving, decision-making and thought organization, leading to broader perception, semantic access, social views and relaxed physical actions (Fredrickson, 2013). Positive emotions may also enhance PsyCap components such as hope, optimism, efficacy and resilience.

Additionally, social learning theory explains the impact of TSR on learning and behavior. This theory posits that behavior is primarily learned through modeling, observation, feedback and vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, 1977). TSR demonstrates how teachers serve as models, exhibiting positive behaviors such as cooperation, persistence and curiosity, influencing their students' attitudes and actions.

Method

Research Design

The research design details this empirical, quantitative study, including the specific activities, methods, and data collection and analysis procedures. Data were collected using a convenience sampling technique, with a focus on university students in Pakistan. Convenience sampling was employed in this study because the target population consisted of university students, making it feasible to access a large and diverse sample within a limited timeframe. This allowed us to obtain efficient data from students who were readily available and willing to participate and share information, ensuring a sufficient sample size for robust statistical analysis. Academic performance data were obtained directly from the relevant universities, and other variables were self-reported by the participants. The study sample included students from public universities who were contacted and asked to complete the questionnaire in their normal academic settings.

 The data collection process lasted two months at two different time points, indicating a time-lagged study design. A time-lagged approach was chosen to better capture dynamic relationships between variables and reduce common method bias. At Time 1, demographics, pride, PsyCap, TSR and student engagement were measured. Participants were asked to provide their student numbers, and privacy was guaranteed. An attention check was also included where students were supposed to answer “strongly disagree.” At Time 2, the researcher got permission to access the students' marks percentage from universities for only those participants who provided their student numbers. These percentages were considered as their academic performance. The selection criteria for participants included no preferences or restrictions based on ethnicity, race, gender or age. Data were analyzed using SPSS, employing the process macro by Hayes (model 4). For moderation analysis, a hierarchical moderation analysis was conducted.

Five hundred students were contacted for data collection. Of the 500 questionnaires distributed, 340 were returned; after looking for missing values and those who failed the attention check question (This is in attention check. If you are reading carefully, please select “strongly disagree”), we ended up with 328 deemed suitable for analysis. Personal contacts were used during the data collection process. A cover letter was also provided to explain the purpose and significance of the study while maintaining participant confidentiality and voluntary participation.

G*Power is the most widely used software in social sciences to know an adequate sample size (Qasim et al., 2022). The analysis parameters were set with a medium effect size of 0.15, an α level of 0.05, and a high power of 0.80. These are the widely adopted standards in social science research. Moreover, the predictors were set for three.

With those set criteria, the G*Power analysis showed that a minimum sample size of 119 participants is necessary to detect a medium effect size with adequate power. The sample size of this study, which consists of 328 participants, greatly surpassed the minimum requirement. This suggests that the sample size was sufficient to ensure reliable and valid results. Following data collection, a post hoc analysis was performed using G*Power on the 328 participants. The analysis resulted in a significantly high power of 0.9999, topping the limit of 0.80 usually employed (Cohen, 2013). The study's high statistical power ensures it can effectively detect significant relationships.

The data was collected from students at various universities from Islamabad Pakistan, including males and females. The sample comprised more males (58%) than females (42%). Regarding the age of the respondents, only 1% of the participants were between the ages of 18-19, while 21% fell within the 20-21 age range. Most respondents (53%) were between the ages of 20-24, and only 23% were over 25. Regarding the duration of students' enrollment in their current institutions, 30.5% had been studying for 0-1 year, 51.8% for 2-3 years, 11.3% for 4-5 years, and 5.8% for over 5 years.

Measures

Positive Emotions (Pride)

Pride was assessed using a scale consisting of 7 items, as developed by (Tracy & Robins, 2007). Students responded using a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 7, indicating the degree to which they typically experienced certain feelings. One sample item was "I am feeling fulfilled"; its reliability was 0.86.

PsyCap

The Psychological Capital Questionnaire, modified for use in academic settings, was employed to assess psychological capital (Avey et al., 2011). Using a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 7, this questionnaire consisted of 12 items that assessed the four dimensions of the PsyCap construct: (1) The efficacy dimension is represented by three items (e.g., "I feel sure when sharing information about my studies with other people"); (2) two items for optimism (e.g., "Concerning my studies, I'm optimistic about what the future offers me"); (3) four items represent hope (e.g., "Right now I see myself as being pretty successful in my studies"); and (4) three items are resilience-related (e.g., "I usually take the stressful aspects of my studies in stride"). Reliability was 0.91.

Academic Performance

The educational institutions' percentage marks were employed to evaluate academic performance. The percentage varied from 1 (poor) to 7 (excellent).

Student Engagement

Student engagement was measured using Rich et al. (2010) scale for the Job Engagement Questionnaire. The scale was adapted to the module context. This questionnaire consisted of 18 items that were measured on a 7-point continuum. The reliability of student engagement was 0.94.

Teacher Student Relationship

Using the 15-item TSR (Pietromonaco & Barrett, 2000), students evaluated how they felt about their relationships with their teachers. A self-report instrument for students was used, with a seven-point scale for response. TSR reliability was 0.94.

Results

Model Fitness and Common Method Bias

To assess common method variance (CMV), an unmeasured latent method construct (ULMC) approach was utilized, which effectively addresses various extraneous sources of shared method variance. Specifically, for the four-factor model, a single-method latent variable was included that was linked to all observed items. The results show that values were not significant, and these findings suggest that CMV did not significantly compromise the validity of our research.

The researchers conducted confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) using AMOS 24. As shown in Table 1, the CFA results indicate that the main six-factor model fits the data well, with a χ²/df of 1.81, CFI = .91, TLI = .91, and RMSEA = .05, indicating a good model fit. In comparison with all other alternative models, one-factor model showed poor model fitness values (χ²/df = 7.17, CFI = .33, TLI = .30, RMSEA = .14). The Common Method Bias model also performs poor, with CFI = .34, TLI = .31, and RMSEA = .14, confirming that all factors should remain distinct

Note. SE= Student Engagement,  TSR= Teacher Student Relationship, PsyCap= Psychological Capital

The results in Table 2 show that all constructs have acceptable levels of skewness and kurtosis, indicating normality. The composite reliability (rho_c) values are all above 0.8, demonstrating good reliability, and the average variance extracted (AVE) values are above 0.5, indicating good validity for the constructs measured.

Note. N=328. 𝛾₁= Skewness and 𝛾₂= Kurtosis.

Correlation Analysis

Table 3 shows how the variables are correlated to each other. The results show that pride has a good and significant relation with PsyCap (r=.303, p<.01), TSR (r=.218, p<.01), academic performance (r=.167, p<.01), and student engagement (r=.230, p<.01). PsyCap also has a good and significant relation with TSR (r=.209, p<.01), academic performance (r=.214, p<.01), and student engagement (r=.289, p<.01). TSR also has a good and significant relation with academic performance (r=.123, p<.01), and student engagement (r=.180, p<.01). Reliability values are given in parenthesis.

Note. N=328, *p<.05. **p< .01.

H1; "Pride is positively related to student's academic performance."

Table 4 shows pride positively relates to academic performance (β = .10, p < .001). These results support hypothesis H1.

H2; "Pride is positively related to student engagement."

The above table shows that pride is clearly related to student engagement (β = .16, p < .001), supporting hypothesis H2.

H3; "PsyCap mediates the relation between pride and student's academic performance."

The indirect influence of pride on academic performance is 0.054 (p<0.01). The results are positive and statistically significant (the lower and upper bounds of 95% for the confidence interval are 0.019 and 0.097, respectively). Hence, it can be concluded with 95% confidence that the mediation effect of PsyCap between pride and academic performance exists. Hence, H3 was supported.

H4; "PsyCap mediates the relation between pride and student's engagement."

The indirect effect of pride on student engagement is 0.074 (p<0.01). The lower and upper 95% confidence interval limits are 0.033 and 0.123. Hence, it can be concluded with 95% confidence that the mediation effect of PsyCap between pride and student engagement exists. So, hypothesis H4 is also supported.

H5; "Teacher-student relationship will moderate the relationship between PsyCap and student academic performance, such that the relationship will be stronger for stronger TSR than for low TSR."

Moderation results (Table 5) show that TSR moderates the association between PsyCap and students' academic performance. The results are (β = .18, p < .001), which confirms H5.

H6; "Teacher-student relationship moderates the relationship between PsyCap and Student engagement, such that the relationship is stronger for stronger TSR than weaker TSR."

Results were also significant (β = .15, p < .001) for H6. PsyCap's relation to student engagement has been moderated by TSR

Discussion

This study, which investigated the impact of pride (a positive emotion) on academic performance and student engagement, mediated by PsyCap and moderated by TSR, has yielded significant results. It is confirmed that pride substantially influences students' academic performance and engagement. This suggests that students who experience pride are likelier to excel academically and engage in positive actions. These findings align with previous research that has linked pride to success, self-esteem, competence and future positive behaviors (Diwan et al., 2024; Kraemer et al., 2017; Tracy et al., 2023). Pride may also reinforce the behavior that evokes a sense of achievement and may vary in response to performance (Dickens & Robins, 2022). The need for pride strongly drives the importance of performing well academically. Once students experience greater pride, they may not want to lose their image and may strive to maintain their performance.

This study reveals that positive emotions exhibit temporal and individual variations. Positive emotions indicate sufficient progress toward a goal, reducing the need for additional resource allocation (Dickens & Robins, 2022). Greater pride may decrease the pursuit of academic performance, while low pride may signify ineffective self-control. Pride indicates competence perception and achievement, providing feedback for goal redirection (Kraemer et al., 2017; Tracy et al., 2023). The findings of this study provide support for the B&B theory, demonstrating how pride fosters achievement. In contrast, negative emotions may contribute to conflicts, boredom, diminished motivation and reduced cohesion. Pride enhances student engagement by reinforcing normative behavioral tendencies and optimizing emotional responses to both success and failure. Additionally, self-concern plays a crucial role in facilitating coping mechanisms in the face of setbacks.

The study also explored PsyCap as a mediator, showing that pride, through PsyCap, enhances student's academic performance and engagement. Previous research supports the effect of positive emotions on academic self-efficacy, optimism and hope (Vîrgă et al., 2022). Similarly, PsyCap enhances performance through motivational processes and positive cognition (Luthans et al., 2007). Higher academic PsyCap levels predict better academic performance, providing the essential skills and attitudes to adhere to the required level (Carmona-Halty et al., 2021). These findings align with previous studies that show PsyCap is a strong runner in academic performance  (Carmona-Halty et al., 2021; Datu et al., 2018). Accumulated PsyCap facilitates processes that contribute to student's well-being and academic performance (Martínez et al., 2019).

Positive emotion indirectly influences academic performance and engagement through PsyCap, and it serves as a valuable resource for building PsyCap and creating multiple pathways to achieve goals. This aligns with previous research demonstrating an indirect relationship between positive emotions and academic performance mediated by PsyCap (Etikariena, 2018). PsyCap and student engagement are reciprocal (Siu et al., 2023). Positive emotions lead to personal resources, influencing study engagement (Saleem et al., 2022). Students with high PsyCap actively participate in academic activities, leading to improved academic performance and engagement (Liu et al., 2024).

Furthermore, TSR moderates PsyCap's relation with academic performance and engagement. This study highlights that TSR fosters a sense of relatedness, positively impacting students' performance and engagement. Previous studies did not explicitly examine the moderating role of the quality of teacher-student interactions that enhances the significant potential of the influence of PsyCap on engagement in performance. This unique finding suggests that supportive teachers facilitate task execution, motivating students and providing guidance. Fulfilling students' relatedness needs and PsyCap contribute to enhanced academic performance.

Theoretical Implications

This research raises various theoretical considerations. While student engagement and academic performance are commonly linked, recent research shows they do not always move in tandem (Zhao et al., 2021). Engagement—comprising emotional, behavioral and cognitive dimensions—is essential for fostering enthusiasm and participation in learning (Balwant, 2018). However, it does not necessarily guarantee high academic outcomes. External factors such as test anxiety, socioeconomic conditions, and learning strategies play significant roles in academic performance. This implies that highly engaged students may not always perform better academically than their less-engaged peers (Singh et al., 2016). This distinction underscores the importance of examining both engagement and performance in this research. By analyzing pride, this study explored its differential effects on both engagement and academic performance. Prior studies suggest pride can boost engagement through reflective thinking and increased motivation (Tracy et al., 2023). However, its impact on academic performance may be mediated by some factors, including the quality of learning support and assessment conditions. Treating engagement and performance as distinct yet interconnected, allows for a more nuanced understanding of how pride influences different facets of the academic experience.

Firstly, the study contributed that pride directly influences student's academic performance and engagement. Therefore, pride is an important positive emotion that can promote achievement and involvement in the academic domain. Second, pride is indirectly related to academic performance and engagement through PsyCap. Consequently, this supports the B & B theory of positive emotions, which states that positive emotions can enhance personal resources and lead to positive outcomes (Fredrickson, 2013). Beyond the purpose of this study, it still provides empirical evidence for the B&B theory and its applicability in the educational context. Third, it has been established that TSR moderates the relation of PsyCap with student academic performance and engagement. Nevertheless, it indicates that TSR is crucial in how PsyCap affects student outcomes. Strong TSR may provide a secure base for students to develop their intellectual capabilities in an emotionally balanced manner.

This study also suggests that individuals in a moment of shared positivity may become more concerned with others' well-being and gain pride. The study’s findings may relate to mental capital literature, which refers to the cognitive and emotional resources that enable individuals to function effectively in society. Building up these important capitals may have positive implications for individuals and organizations.

Practical Implications

This study has several practical implications. First, it suggests that teachers can use pride as a strategic motivational tool to enhance students' academic performance and engagement. Teachers can create an environment where students can experience pride by acknowledging their achievements and providing feedback. Pride may motivate students to pursue optimal performance and upward spirals. Second, it implies that positive emotions can benefit individuals and organizations. Positive emotions may facilitate optimal functioning, social interactions, helping behaviors, and health outcomes. Therefore, it is important to raise emotional awareness among individuals and help them understand the role of emotions in their lives. Third, it indicates that PsyCap can be developed among university students. PsyCap is a state-like construct that can be improved through training and interferences. This study highlights the critical role of TSR in promoting students' engagement and academic performance. Teachers should foster positive relations with all students and provide them with support and guidance, which may lead to positive outcomes for teachers and students.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

Like every other research article, this study also has a few limitations. First, the convenience sampling of university students who participated in the study may limit the results. Second, the data collection procedure relies on self-report data, which may introduce common method bias. However, the student's academic performance was taken directly from institutes to reduce the possibility of any bias. A larger and more diverse sample may reveal more information and enhance the validity of the findings. Future studies should use more rigorous sampling and design methods to overcome these limitations.

This line of research also suggests some directions for future studies. First, the focus was very specific to the students' experiences of pride. Positive emotions can be tested in a detailed way because a structural definition might produce more useful results. If pride is too much or too variable, it might have different consequences, which future studies need to explore. Second, it may be valuable if the researcher looks for other positive emotions (e.g., joy, love, happiness, etc.) that can be included to broaden the scope and provide further evidence about future desired outcomes. Third, cultural and contextual differences might also define pride and TSR in different ways; future research can study this aspect as well. It might be fruitful to see the variability in student and teacher interaction from the students' perspectives and from the teacher’s perspectives. Finally, further studies can explore interesting associations from positive emotional perspectives in student contexts, considering distinct moderators and mediators. Examining how TSR influences students' cognitive functions may also be worthwhile. For example, (Koenen et al., 2019) found that teachers can enhance students' self-efficacy.

Conclusion

Findings provide compelling evidence that targeting positive emotions, specifically pride, can significantly enhance student engagement and performance, mediated through the mechanism of PsyCap and moderated by TSR. Findings were significant for the hypothesized relations between positive emotions and desirable student outcomes. Notably, pride is a crucial factor in fostering academic success and engagement. By cultivating positive emotions, particularly pride, educators and institutions can effectively promote resilience, personal growth, and social skills among students. Pride experience is a powerful catalyst for enhanced academic performance and overall student well-being. A key implication was to focus on individual attributions for success, emphasizing the role of effort and personal agency. Educators can facilitate empowerment and motivation by encouraging students to take pride in their accomplishments and emphasizing the controllable aspects of achievement. It is worth highlighting that pride experiences are transient but impactful. Individuals can consciously choose the emotions they wish to experience, and by nurturing pride, students can unlock their full potential and achieve exceptional outcomes in their academic pursuits.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors of the manuscript have no financial or non-financial conflict of interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data associated with this study is not available due to ethical, restrictions.

FUNDING DETAILS

No funding has been received for this research.