Empirical Economic Review

Agricultural Exports and Environmental Quality in Developing Countries: A Panel Data Analysis

2026-01-16T09:57:47+00:00

The current study aimed to investigate the relationship between
agricultural exports and environmental quality in developing countries
over the time period of 2002 to 2021. Using panel data regression analysis,
the study tested the impact of agricultural exports on ecological footprint
(EF) of cropland. Both, EF of cropland production and consumption were
used to investigate the Pollution Haven Hypothesis (PHH), Pollution Halo
Hypothesis, and the theory of ecological unequal exchange (EUE). The
results showed that agricultural exports significantly contribute to EF of
cropland in developing countries, providing the evidence in favor of PHH.
Furthermore, the study also found some evidence of ecological unequal
exchange since agricultural exports were observed to increase the EF of
cropland production, however, they did not affect the EF of consumption
in developing countries. The study highlighted the need for suitable
agricultural practices, eco-friendly policies, and international cooperation
to mitigate the environmental impacts of agricultural exports in
developing countries.

Pakistan’s Digital Transformation and Edge in Service Exports

2026-01-16T09:58:08+00:00

Service exports play an important role in Pakistan’s economy and its valuable foreign exchange while showcasing the country’s strengths in sectors like information technology, finance, and tourism. They support economic diversification, generate employment opportunities, and enhance Pakistan’s competitiveness worldwide. This study discovers the link between digital technology adoption and Pakistan’s service exports. A key contribution is the development of a Digital Economy Development Index (DEDI) for the period of 1993–2023, highlighting the country’s digitalization trends and their connection with service export performance. Using the ARDL approach, it studies the impact of digital economy development (DEDI), financial depth, domestic lending and the real effective exchange rate on Pakistan’s service exports. The results disclose that DEDI has a positive and significant long run effect on service exports, underscoring the critical role of digital transformation in improving trade performance. In contrast, financial depth shows a negative and significant long-term impact, indicating slow adaptation within the financial sector in supporting service trade. Domestic lending to the private sector has an insignificant bearing on services exports in both the long term and the short term whereas the REER has a positive significant effect in the short term. The study recommends advancing the digital economy and digital infrastructure to strengthen Pakistan’s service exports by increasing connectivity for companies engaged in service exports by investing in high-speed internet, effective data centers, and cloud computing infrastructure. Moreover, enhancing financial policies, credit access and implementing comprehensive training programs for digital upskilling to thrive in the digital economy is needed.

Economic Policy Strategies and Development Outcomes in the Middle East, 1950–2000: Evidence from Oil Revenues, Conflict, and Institutional Dynamics

2026-01-16T06:24:31+00:00

This research looks at how economic policy has affected the paths of Middle Eastern countries from 1950 to 2000 in the light of severe oil price changes, political upheaval and recurrent instability. The research using three key development lenses, structural transformation, rentier-state theory and institutional economics, demonstrates their analytical relevance in the study. Oil revenues gave economies more power but also exposed them to more volatility. Also, recurring wars and persistent political instability imposed heavy and long-lasting economic and social costs on these countries. Countries that strengthened their institutions and sought real diversification were better able to absorb shocks and maintain growth over time. The study employs a balanced panel for seven economies, and uses history and econometrics to test these propositions. The analysis uses well-known macroeconomic measures which are growth, unemployment and inflation. Also included are measures of oil income, intensity of conflict, and quality of governance. Evidence from fixed-effects and difference-in-differences models supported by interaction terms and instrumental-variable checks suggests that while oil windfalls may induce an initial growth spurt, in the longer run, they make countries more vulnerable. Similarly, while conflict may have an instantaneous negative growth effect, in the longer run, conflict depresses growth. On the other hand, enhancing institutional quality significantly multiplies the capacity of states to manage volatility and support recovery. According to the findings, the policy agenda should focus on building stronger institutions while managing realistic diversification and fiscal management system. So, it should have the capability of smoothing commodity cycle issues. Further, it remains highly relevant to the region while the world is gradually moving toward a post-oil world economy.

Performing Transgender Desire Through Cross Dressing: Socio-Economic Factors and Implications of the Phenomenon in Pakistani Society

2026-01-20T11:02:28+00:00

Despite being socially disapproved and contradictory to the cultural and religious values, the practice of cross dressing is in vogue in Pakistani society. This qualitative research study aimed at in-depth exploration of phenomenon of Male-to-Female (MTF) cross dressing as well as its socio-economic implications for the family life of cross dressers. The study also intended to explore factors consequential to the raising trend of MTF cross dressing in Pakistani society. The study was conducted in twin cities i.e. Islamabad and Rawalpindi. A sample of twenty (20) MTF cross dressers was selected through purposive sampling technique. Interview guide was used as a tool of data collection. The collected data was analyzed through thematic analysis. Findings of the study revealed that inspiration & role modeling, peer group influence, amusement & entertainment, non-satisfaction with the gender identity and economic miseries were some major causative factors consequential to the MTF cross dressing. The findings also divulged that dual gender performance has severe socio-economic repercussions including migration, non-acceptance by the family & society, Non availability of favorable work conditions, stigmatization & victimization, facing discriminatory attitude, physical & sexual assault, sense of deprivation regarding rights, social security as well as economic issues. Dual gender performance has also strong negative influence on the family life of cross dressers. The study recommends that it is need of the hour to develop a mechanism of registration & certification for the real trans-people through their medical checkup so that effective policies, based on actual trans-population, may be formulated for the welfare of transgender community as well as to protect & safeguard their fundamental human rights.

Impression Management Theory as a Panacea for Public Budgeting Process

2026-01-23T15:41:33+00:00

This study employs impression management theory, i.e., data visualization tools, to understand public budgeting preparation better. Our study uses a powerful graphical technique, the DiGraph, to effectively allocate public resources for the greater good, where edges have a direction, indicating a one-way relationship between nodes. Based on the amount, the directed sub-graphs show which sub-resource cost and resource cost can be reduced, which sub-resource, resource, sub-activities, and activities can be dropped, and lastly, which objective is entirely/partially not achievable because of the significant cuts of funds from the government or funding agencies.

Key Words: Public Budgeting, Impression Management Theory, Graph Theory, Budgeting Process, DiGraph